Low Power Radio Solutions Ltd
Data Sheet
easyRadio Advanced ISM radio modules
Modules Included:
ERA400TRS
ERA900TRS
ERA400TS
ERA900TS
Datasheet Revision 3.4 April
Page 1 of 20
Copyright LPRS 2011 .
Contents
Changes to this document ................................................................................. 4
Terms and Conditions of Use............................................................................... 4
Introduction to easyRadio Advanced ........................................................................ 5
New features: ............................................................................................... 5
Basic Specifications ........................................................................................ 5
ERA400TRS/ERA900TRS Transceiver Description .......................................................... 6
Easy-Radio Transceiver Block Diagram ................................................................... 6
Physical Dimensions ........................................................................................ 7
Pin Description (RAW RF Data mode) .................................................................... 8
ERAx00TS Transmitter ...................................................................................... 9
Block Diagram ............................................................................................... 9
Physical Dimensions ........................................................................................ 9
Pin Description .............................................................................................. 9
Application & Operation ERx00TRS-03 .....................................................................10
Typical System Block Diagram ............................................................................10
Timing Specifications – Applies to all EasyRadio Advanced Modules. ...............................10
Absolute Maximum Ratings ERA400TRS & ERA900TRS....................................................11
Performance Data: ERAxxxTRS Supply +5.0 Volt ± 5%, Temperature 20° C ........................11
ERA400TRS Channel Frequencies vs Bandwidth Settings ................................................12
easyRadio Configuration Command Set ....................................................................13
RS232 Communication Settings ...........................................................................13
RF POWER Settings .........................................................................................13
RF Channel Settings ........................................................................................14
Bandwidth ...................................................................................................14
Band Plan ....................................................................................................14
MISCELLANEOUS COMMANDS ..............................................................................14
TEST MODES .................................................................................................15
RAW Data Mode (TRS Only at time of print) ...............................................................16
Notes: ...........................................................................................................17
RSSI ...........................................................................................................17
PCB Layout ..................................................................................................17
Power Supply ................................................................................................18
Antennas .....................................................................................................18
Product Order Codes ..........................................................................................18
easyRadio Advanced Module Firmware Version ...........................................................19
Datasheet Revision 3.4 April
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Copyright LPRS 2011 .
Document History .............................................................................................19
Copyright .......................................................................................................19
Disclaimer ......................................................................................................19
CONTACT INFORMATION ......................................................................................20
Datasheet Revision 3.4 April
Page 3 of 20
Copyright LPRS 2011 .
Changes to this document
This data sheet has been updated to reflect firmware changes throughout the range of modules. Specific
alterations are recorded in the documentation history later in the document.
Terms and Conditions of Use
Low Power Radio Solutions Ltd has an on-going policy to improve the performance and reliability of their
products; we therefore reserve the right to make changes without notice. The information contained in
this data sheet is believed to be accurate however we do not assume any responsibility for errors or any
liability arising from the application or use of any product or circuit described herein. This data sheet
neither states nor implies warranty of any kind, including fitness for any particular application.
easyRadio modules are a component part of an end system product and should be treated as such. Testing
to fitness is the sole responsibility of the manufacturer of the device into which easyRadio products are
fitted, and is expected BEFORE deployment into the field.
Any liability from defect or malfunction is limited to the replacement of product ONLY, and does not
include labour or other incurred corrective expenses.
Using or continuing to use these devices hereby binds the user to these terms.
Datasheet Revision 3.4 April
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Copyright LPRS 2011 .
Introduction to easyRadio Advanced
easyRadio Advanced (ERA) modules extend on the
simplicity of previous easyRadio(02) modules by
incorporating truly innovative features, including
the ability to change bandwidth of the radio from
19.2KHz down to 12.5KHz, which means narrowband performance on a wide-band budget.
Internal temperature measurement ensures less
than 1.5KHz frequency drift from ambient 20°C,
over a range of -40°C to +85°C, as well as providing
a usable thermometer for the connected
application accurate to within 1°C.
Modes of transmission include an enhanced
easyRadio protocol with 16-bit encryption and anticross talk software, plus raw data modes where
users can now use self-coding system which can be
set to interface to any other raw data module on
ISM bands in both FSK (FM) and ASK (AM)
modulation.
With the addition of three (total 4) separate data
buffers, data throughput has been massively
improved by around 25%*.
Datasheet Revision 3.4 April
New features:
A new digital RSSI (Received Signal Strength
Indication) now reduces the requirement for
the host to handle A-D measurement and can
be called via a simple command for either the
current RSSI level or the signal strength of the
last received data packet. This value can also
be delivered as the first BYTE in the delivered
packet.
Temporary channel/power level selection:
This new command allows the user to scan
other channels without storing the settings in
internal EEPROM, therefore not reducing the
life of the EEPROM through repetitive
modification.
Free flash firmware upgrades. Using the tools
from LPRS, new updates/features can be
quickly programmed making a truly future
proof solution. Custom firmware can also be
used (Contact LPRS for details)
Back compatibility with 02 modules.
Temperature compensation plus crystal
controlled synthesiser for frequency accuracy
less than +/- 1KHz over full temperature range
Temperature sensor usable by host
Basic Specifications
High sensitivity receiver
o -107dBm @ 19.2 Kbps
o -112dBm @ 4.8 Kbps
o -117dBm @ 2.4 Kbps
Current
o Receiver:
21mA (Max)
o Transmitter:
32mA (Max)
User Programmable:
Frequency (Up to 132 channels)
Bandwidth (Down to 12.5KHz)
RS232 Data Rate
Output Power (Up to 10dBm)
10mW @ 434MHz
5mW @ 869.85MHz
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ERA400TRS/ERA900TRS Transceiver Description
The easyRadio Transceiver is a complete sub-system that combines a high performance very low power RF
transceiver, a microcontroller and a voltage regulator:
easyRadio Transceiver Block Diagram
3.3v
Regulator
RFIC
Carrier Detect (Pin 3)
μ Processor
Temperature
Sensor
Vcc (Pin 8)
BUSY (Pin 4)
Serial Data Out (Pin 5)
Serial Data In (Pin 6)
Ready (Pin 7)
EEPROM
Ground (Pins 2 & 9)
The Serial Data Input and Serial Data Output operate at the standard 19,200 Baud and the two handshake
lines provide optional flow control to and from the host. The easyRadio Transceiver can accept and
transmit up to 180 bytes of data, which it buffers internally before transmitting in an efficient over-air
code format.
Any other easyRadio Transceiver within range and on the same channel that „hears‟ the transmission will
decode the message and place the recovered data within a receive buffer that can then be downloaded to
the receiving host for processing and interpretation. Radio transmission and reception is bi-directional
(half duplex) i.e. transmit OR receive but not simultaneously.
Increased internal buffers however, allow the user to upload while a download is in progress giving an
appearance of fully duplex data flow.
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Physical Dimensions
14.0 mm
38.0 mm
4.0 mm
10.0 mm
ERA400TRS
ERA900TRS
15.24 mm
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Pin Pitch 2.54mm
PCB Hole Size 1.0mm
Pin Description (easyRadio mode)
Pin No
Name
1
Antenna
2
RF Ground
3
CD
4
Busy Output
5
Serial Data Out
6
Serial Data In
7
Host Ready Input
8
Vcc
9
Ground
Datasheet Revision 3.4 April
Description
Notes
50Ω RF input/output.
Connect to suitable antenna.
RF ground. Connect to antenna
ground (coaxial cable screen
braid) and local ground plane.
Internally connected to other
Ground pins.
Carrier Detect
Digital Output to indicate that CTS function
transceiver is ready to receive
serial data from host.
Digital output for received data
to host
Digital input for serial data to be
transmitted
Digital Input to indicate that
RTS function
Host is Ready to receive serial
data from transceiver
Positive supply pin. +2.5 to +5.5
Volts. This should be a „clean‟
noise free supply with less than
25mV of ripple.
Connect to supply 0 Volt and
ground plane
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Checklist
1. The module operates internally from an on board 3.3 Volt low drop regulator. The logic levels of
the input/output pins are therefore between 0 Volt and 3.3 Volts. (See specifications/performance
data).
2. The serial inputs and outputs are intended for connection to a UART or similar low voltage logic
device. Do not connect any of the inputs or outputs directly to an RS232 port. The transceiver
module may be permanently damaged by the voltages (+/- 12V) present on RS232 signal lines. See
Application Circuit (Figure 11) for typical connection to an RS232 port via MAX232 interface IC.
3. The „Host Ready Input‟ should be tied to 0 Volt (Ground) if not used, only when handshaking is
enabled.
4. Outputs will drive logic operating at 3.3 Volts and inputs will be correctly driven by logic operating
at 5 Volts.
5. Fit 1K resistors in series with data lines if connecting to 5V logic.
Pin Description (RAW RF Data mode)
Pin No
Name
Description
1
Antenna
2
RF Ground
3
CD/Config
50Ω RF input/output.
Connect to suitable
antenna.
RF ground. Connect to
antenna ground (coaxial
cable screen braid) and
local ground plane.
Internally connected to
other Ground pins.
Carrier Detect
4
5
6
RX Select
RX Data
TS Data
7
TX Select
8
Vcc
9
Ground
Datasheet Revision 3.4 April
Notes
Carrier Detect/Config
mode select pin
Active Low
RX mode select pin
Raw RF data output
Raw RF data Input
(Toggling this pin
modulates the carrier)
Enables the transmitter Active Low
carrier.
Positive supply pin. +2.5
to +5.5 Volts. This should
be a „clean‟ noise free
supply with less than
25mV of ripple.
Connect to supply 0 Volt
and ground plane
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ERAx00TS Transmitter
3.3v
Regulator
Vcc (Pin 4)
Temperature
Sensor
μ Processor
RFIC
Transmitter
Serial Data Out (Pin 3)
Serial Data In (Pin 6)
EEPROM
Ground (Pins 2 & 5)
Block Diagram
4.0 mm
12.0 mm
31.0 mm
ERA400TS
ERA900TS
17.78mm
1 2
3 4 5 6
Pin Pitch 2.54mm
PCB Hole Size 1.0mm
Physical Dimensions
Pin Description
Pin N Name
1
RF Gnd
2
3
4
RF Out
Serial Data Out
Vcc
5
6
Gnd
TXD
Description
Notes
RF ground. Connect to antenna ground (coaxial cable screen
braid) and local ground plane. Internally connected to Pin 5
50Ω RF output. Connect to suitable antenna
RS232 Output for Command use (SDO)
Positive supply pin. +2.5 to +5.5 Volts. This should be a
„clean‟ noise free supply with less than 25mV of ripple
Supply 0 Volt and Ground Plane
RS232 Transmit Data Digital Input (SDI)
Notes:
1. The module operates internally from an on board 3.3 Volt low drop regulator.
2. TXD input will be correctly driven by logic operating at 2.5 - 5 Volts. Input should not be driven by
an analogue source.
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Application & Operation ERx00TRS-03
The diagram below shows a typical system block diagram comprising hosts (user‟s application) connected
to easyRadio Transceivers. The hosts (A & B) will be monitoring (collecting data) and/or controlling
(sending data) to some real world application.
Serial Data Output
Serial Data Input
Host
(A)
Busy
Serial Data Output
RF Link
Easy-Radio
Transceiver
(A)
Easy-Radio
Transceiver
(B)
Host Ready
Serial Data Input
Busy
Host
(B)
Host Ready
Typical System Block Diagram
The hosts provide serial data input and output lines and two „handshaking‟ lines that control the flow of
data to and from the easyRadio Transceivers. The „Busy‟ output line, when active, indicates that the
transceiver is undertaking an internal task and is not ready to receive serial data. The „Host Ready‟ input
is used to indicate that the host is ready to receive the data held in the buffer of the easyRadio
Transceiver.
The host should check before sending data that the „Busy‟ line is not high, as this would indicate that the
transceiver is either transmitting or receiving data over the radio link. It should also pull the „Host Ready‟
line low and check that no data appears on the Serial Data Output line.
Timing Specifications – Applies to all easyRadio Advanced Modules.
Host Serial Input/Output
Host Character Format
End of Data Delay
RF Transmit
Buffer Size
2400, 4800, 9600, 19200,
38400, 31250 (MIDI),
76800 & 115200
1 Start, 8 Data, No Parity,
1 Stop
2 x BAUD BYTE Duration
Depends on Bandwidth
1-180
baud
1
Bits
2
mS
mS
Bytes
3
4
5
Notes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Data is inverted i.e. Start Bit is logic low. The inputs are intended for direct connection to a microcontroller
UART or to RS232 inputs and outputs via an RS232 Level translator such as a Maxim MAX232, which invert the
logic of the RS232 signals. This allows direct connection to, for example a Microcontroller UART. The data
rate is user programmable (Default 19200 baud) and may differ between individual units within a system.
(See Application Circuit diagram for logic level to RS232 interface figure 11).
1 start, 8 data, 1 stop = 10 bits @ 104uS/bit = 0.52mS/character at 19200 Baud. (Default)
The „End of Data‟ delay is fixed at twice the character time.
A fixed package overhead of xx is added to all packets.
The buffer size is limited to 180 bytes. Sending more than 180 bytes will cause loss of data.
a. CTS pin will go high 2 bytes before the buffer is full. This allows characters already sent to be
accepted by the ER module.
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Absolute Maximum Ratings ERA400TRS & ERA900TRS
Operating Temperature Range
Storage Temperature Range
-40° C to +85° C
-40° C to +85° C
Vcc
All Other Pins (N.B.)
Antenna
- 0.3 to + 6 Volts
- 0.3 to 3.3 Volts
50V p-p @ < 10MHz Must be insulated to prevent
damage from ESD
Performance Data: ERAxxxTRS Supply +5.0 Volt ± 5%, Temperature 20° C
DC Parameters
Supply Voltage
(Vcc)
Transmit supply
current
Receive supply
current
Sleep Mode current
Pin
Min
Typical
Max
Units
8
2.5
3.3-5.0
5.5
Volts
8
32
33
mA
8
21
mA
8
800
µA
3.1
0.1
Volts
Volts
Interface Levels
Data Output Logic 1
Data Output Logic 0
Logic Output
Current
Data Input Logic 1
Data Input Logic 0
Input Pull-ups
RF Parameters
Pin
Antenna Impedance 1
RF Frequency
2.0
402
868
902
100
Typical
50
434
869.85
915
-5
-5
+9
+5
Min
25
mA
3.6
0.2
Volts
Volts
KΩ
Units
Ohms
MHz
MHz
MHz
Max
470
870
928
Notes
10k load to +Vcc supply
10k load to +Vcc supply
1
Notes
See ER Configuration
Command set
Transmitter
RF Power Output
1
Frequency accuracy
±2
9.9
2.4
2.025
FM deviation
Harmonics/
Spurious Emmissions
Over Air Data rate
+10
+5
dBm
(434MHz)
dBm
(869MHz)
ppm
Khz
Khz
KHz
50Ω load
Depends on Frequency
Overall
100KHz Spacing
25KHz Spacing
12.5KHz Spacing
-47
< -36
dBm
Meets EN 300 220-3
1200
19200
38400
bps
Manchester Encoded
115.2
dBm
dBm
Kbps
At 100KHz Channel Spacing
At 12.5KHz Channel Spacing
2.4
-107
-117
19.2
Receiver
Receive Sensitivity
Serial Data Rate
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Host interface. 6
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Logic Timing
Initial Power Up
Time
Pin
Min
Mechanical
Size
Pin Pitch
Weight
Typical
Max
Units
Notes
5
75
mS
2,3
mm
mm
gms
(Standard 0.1 Inches)
38 x 14 x 4
2.54
3.5
Notes
1. The „Host Ready Input‟ and the „Serial Data Input‟ have „weak‟ internal pull-ups enabled.
2. When power is first applied to the module the processor retrieves „calibration‟ data for the RF
section that compensates for temperature and power supply voltage variations. The transceiver
will then be ready to receive (default) or transmit. It would normally be left in this powered state
ready to receive data.
3. During power up the Busy Output line goes high and goes low once ready.
ERA400TRS Channel Frequencies vs Bandwidth Settings
Each channel frequency is calculated relative to the channel number, the channel width, and the start
frequency of the channel. Three commands control the settings of each of these parameters:
Channel command:
ER_CMD#Cn - Where n is channel number (See command table)
Bandwidth Command: ER_CMD#Bn - Where n is the Channel spacing
Band Plan Command: ER_CMD#bn - Where n is the START frequency of the band plan being used
The centre frequency of each channel is calculated using the formula:
Centre Frequency (f) = b + cs +
𝑠
2
Where b = band plan start frequency
c = channel number
s = channel spacing
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easyRadio Configuration Command Set
The programming software sends „Text Commands‟ to the modules and this action can be performed by
terminal software or the host‟s Microcontroller using the following list of commands:
Note that shaded items are either new 03 commands or changes from 02 modules.
RS232 Communication Settings
ER_CMD#U1
ER_CMD#U2
ER_CMD#U3
ER_CMD#U4
ER_CMD#U5
ER_CMD#U6
ER_CMD#U7
ER_CMD#U8
UART Data Rate
4800
9600
19200
38400
31250
76800
115200
ER_CMD#U?
Get UART Value
ER_CMD#A70
PARITY DISABLE
ER_CMD#A71
ER_CMD#A72
EVEN PARITY
ODD PARITY
ER_CMD#A41
FAST ACK Enable
ER_CMD#A40
FAST ACK Disable
2400
4800
9600
19200
38400
31250
76800
115200
2400
The module replies
echos with the UART
value. Eg:
ER_CMD#U2
No ACK is required.
DISABLED BY DEFAULT
When enabled data = 1 Start, 8 Data, 1 Parity, 1 Stop
OFF
OFF
ER400Series
ER900 Series
(Upper case i)
See notes on “FAST ACK”
below.
RF POWER Settings
ER_CMD#P0~9
ER_CMD#P?
RF Power Output
The module replies
with the power
value. eg:
ER_CMD#P9
No ACK is required.
Get Power Value
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RF Channel Settings
ER_CMD#Cx
Where x = Channel
Number in Decimal
ER_CMD#cx
As Upper case C
ER_CMD#C?
Get Channel Value
Eg Channel 5:
ER_CMD#C5 or
ER_CMD#C05 or
ER_CMD#C005
Uppercase 'C' stores
settings in EEPROM
Lowercase 'c' does
not store in EEPROM
The module replies
echoes with the
current channel.
Eg: ER_CMD#C9
No ACK is required.
Bandwidth
ER_CMD#Bx
X=0
1
2
3
6
Band Plan
ER_CMD#bx
12.5KHz
25KHz
50KHz
100KHz
150KHz
2400bps
4800bps
9600bps
19200bps
02 Compatibility
ERA400
Default = 0
1
2
3
433.1
433.1125
458.5125
433.0
MHz
MHz
MHz
MHz
After this command,
the Channel number
will set to Channel
0.
ERA900
869.7MHz
902MHz
863MHz
This setting chooses
the start frequency
of Channel 0
MISCELLANEOUS COMMANDS
ER_CMD#R0
ER_CMD#A00
ER_CMD#A01
ER_CMD#A10
ER_CMD#A11
ER_CMD#A20
Reset module (POR)
DCS OFF (default)
Recommended ON
for new designs
where back
compatibility to
older devices is not
required
DCS ON
Encryption OFF
Encryption algorithm
(default)
is created and
owned solely by
LPRS. It uses a 16-bit
seed that can be set
by the developer.
Encryption ON
CRC16 OFF
The CRC16 routines
are more efficient
and secure than the
old CRC8. For new
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applications it is
recommended.
All new Bandwidth
settings use CRC16.
This setting only
applies to 02
compatibility mode.
ER_CMD#A21
ER_CMD#A30/1
ER_CMD#A40/1
ER_CMD#A50/1
ER_CMD#A70
ER_CMD#A71
ER_CMD#A72
ER_CMD#a0/1
CRC16 ON(default)
Repeater OFF/ON
NOT YET IMPLEMENTED
Fast ACK OFF/ON
Handshaking OFF/ON
Parity Disable
Parity Even
Parity Odd
RSSI In Packet
When enabled each packet is preceded by the 8 bit RSSI value
of the received packet
TEST MODES
ER_CMD#T0
ER_CMD#T1
Upper FSK Carrier
Modulated Carrier
ER_CMD#T2
ER_CMD#T3
Lower FSK Carrier
Get Firmware
Revision
ER_CMD#T4
ER_CMD#T5
RAW Data Test
Modulated Carrier
ER_CMD#T7
Temperature Sensor
ER_CMD#T8
Last Packet RSSI
ER_CMD#T9
Current RSSI
Test Mode 0
Test Mode 1
With Temperature
compensation
Test Mode 2
Returns Firmware
String: eg
ERA400TRS V3.6.23
Out of CTS pin
Without
Temperature
compensation
Reply example:
-15'C or
23.7'C
Returns the HEX
value of the RSSI
register measured on
the last valid
packet.
Live RSSI Value
To successfully send commands do the following:
1. Send Command from host:
e.g.
ER_CMD#U5
2. In the case of a TRS/RS:
o Wait for echo of command from module.
1. Send the ASCII string from the host:
ACK
(Set UART BAUD to 38400)
e.g. ER_CMD#U5
The commands should be sent exactly as shown (case sensitive) with no spaces between characters. The
ACK command is sent as three ASCII characters, ACK in sequence. „A‟‟C‟‟K‟ .
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RAW Data Mode (TRS Only at time of print)
easyRadio Advanced modules have the added versatility of being used without the proprietary protocols
from easyRadio and yet still being used as a multi-channel, multi-bandwidth module.
This allows the user to set precise frequencies to replace other raw data devices on exact frequencies.
Both FSK (FM) and ASK (AM) modes are supported, and with the integration of a configuration mode,
AM/FM modes, power levels, channels and bandwidth settings, can be changed on the fly with a very
efficient command structure.
Enable RAW data mode:
1) When in easyRadio mode send the command ER_CMD#L40202
2) Perform a power reset with Pin 3 left either floating or held high
Return to easyRadio mode:
1) Hold Pin 3 low while providing power (This will not change the default POR setting)
2) Once powered, send the command ER_CMD#L40200. This will reset the default POR setting to
easyRadio Mode
Pin 1
Pin 2
Pin 3
Pin 4
Pin 5
Pin 6
Pin 7
Pin 8
Pin 9
ERA400TRS
ERA900TRS
1 2
Mode Selection
Pin 3
x
x
x
1
0
Antenna
RF Ground
Carrier Detect/Config Mode Pin
RX Select (Active Low)
RF RX Data Output
TX Data Input
TX Select (Active Low)
VCC
Data Ground
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 = +V, 0 = 0V, x = Don’t Care
Pin 4
Pin 7
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
Mode
Sleep
RX Enabled (Output on Pin 5)
TX Enabled (Input Modulation on Pin 6)
Module asleep but higher current (Not recommended)
Configure mode
Once in configure mode, Pins 5 & 6 return to functional UART pins at the stored module BAUD rate
(default 19200).
The configuration command set ALL setting in one command which is 5 bytes long:
BYTE 1
Bandwidth/AM-FM
BYTE 2
Band Plan
BYTE 3
Channel
BYTE 4
Power Level
BYTE 5
CSUM
Each byte uses Hex values in 8-bit format and corresponds to the settings used when selecting parameters
in normal ER commands. Bit 7 of BYTE 1 is used to switch between AM/FM modes. 0 = FM, 1 = AM.
Therefore, to set an FM channel 10 at 12.5KHz Spacing on Band-plan 0 and power level 9:
The configuration word would be: 01 00 0A 09 14 (Note CSUM at BYTE 5)
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The module will ALWAYS respond with an ERROR Status Byte:
76543210
7
6
X
X
5
PLL
4
BW
3
BP
2
C
1
P
0
CSUM
A high in ANY of these positions indicates a failure in the Values used.
Bit 5 (PLL) indicates a failure to lock frequency using the settings requested and returns
the module to the previously set mode.
Exit Configuration Mode:
Simply return Pin 3 to the High State and once all operations are completed (After delivery
of ERROR Status BYTE) the Radio will return to RAW Data Mode with the new settings.
Notes:
RSSI
The Receiver/Transceiver has a built in RSSI (Received Signal Strength Indicator) that provides a digital
value relating to the power at the input. This value can be read back using the ER command “ER_CMD#T8”
or can be set to deliver the value as the first byte of each packet.
This value will be different, depending on the bandwidth currently in use. The graph below explains how
to interpret the values:
PCB Layout
The Ground (0 Volt) pins of the receiver should be connected to a substantial ground plane (large area of
PCB copper) connected to 0 Volt. It is suggested that a double sided PCB be used with one layer being the
ground plane.
Datasheet Revision 3.4 April
Page 17 of 20
PageCopyright
17
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of 20 LPRS
LPRS2011
2011 .
P
Power Supply
The supply used to power the receiver should be „clean‟ and free from ripple and noise (
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